Women in Management

2. Occupational Segregation

For the most part, women and men worldwide continue to work at different jobs and in different industries. Women are concentrated in certain job categories, with more than half in service or clerical work. Men are found in a wider range of industries and a wider range of jobs within those industries. The majority of female professionals are health workers or teachers, jobs with relatively lower incomes and prestige. Male professionals dominate in high-status and high-paying fields such as senior management and engineering.

The workplace is influenced by sex stereotypes about the characteristics of “men’s” and “women’s” work. Globally, the types of occupations that are gender-stereotyped are similar. Men’s work traditionally is characterized as dangerous, skilled and heavy; women’s work is portrayed as safe, nurturing and light. Occupations are characterized as gender- or sex-typed when significant majorities of people in those jobs are of one sex, and others expect it to be that way. More than half of global workforce is in sex-stereotyped occupations, according to the International Labor Organization.

Social attitudes and education inequality contribute to occupational segregation, resulting in men and women funneled toward different professions. In the past, women had trouble getting management jobs partly because of inadequate education and experience. Today, women in many countries are as qualified as men.

Women continue to earn less than men with comparable education achievement. Some of the income disparities stem from differences in career choices, reflecting the divergent paths toward which women and men are steered. But data from Western countries show a steady movement towards occupational diversification for women. For example, about 25% of engineers are women, an 18% increase over a 20-year period.

3. Managerial Sex-typing: A Persistent Barrier to Women’s Opportunities

Organizations have been slow to change their sex-typed views of management. As recently as the 1970s, a male job applicant in the west automatically would be perceived as more qualified for managerial positions because of his gender. Both men and women characterized successful middle managers as having traits ascribed to men. The term “glass ceiling” describes these invisible artificial barriers, created by attitudinal and organizational prejudices that prevent women or minorities from obtaining senior-level positions.

Statistics show that women still hold a smaller proportion of management positions compared with men, regardless of country. By 1999, even though the proportion of women in management has tripled in some countries, it remained generally low. In the United States, women represented 46% of the workforce, but they occupied just 3.3% of the highest-ranking positions of chief executive officer. In Japan, the proportion of administrative and managerial positions held by women increased by 2% between 1989 and 1998, rising from 8% to 10%.

In general, women have changed their perceptions, but occupational gender typing is strong, consistent, pervasive and global. Fewer women today automatically equate male traits with those needed for managerial success. Instead they perceive women as holding some traits necessary for success and men as holding others. Their attitude indicates that they would treat men and women equally when making job-related decisions. But male managers retain many of their gender-stereotyped views.

The nature of many women’s career paths also is a factor blocking women from top positions. At junior management levels, women are usually placed in functions considered “non-strategic,” not jobs that lead to the top. And even women who rise tend to encounter discrimination, both through structural and cultural barriers.

The Glass Ceiling in the Organization Pyramid

Men

4. The “Career Primary” vs. “Mommy Track” Debate

The “Mommy Track” debate began in 1989 after an article by Felice N. Schwartz in the Harvard project/programme purpose Review argued that the cost of hiring women in management is more than men because many women interrupted or ended their careers to have children. Schwartz believed that employers needed to become more flexible, rather than force women to choose between work and family.

Schwartz suggested that one way for organizations to address women’s needs was to divide female managers into two categories: “career primary and “career and family,” later nicknamed the Mommy Track. The two-track system would help organizations retain talented employees in whom they had invested resources, according to Schwartz. In her theory, the career-primary woman is as committed, driven and willing to sacrifice her family for her career as the most driven man. In contract, career-and-family women return to work after having children, but they try to balance families and careers, making sacrifices on both fronts. Schwartz said these Mommy Track women could have lower-paying positions as a trade-off for having more flexible schedules.

Many people felt it was unfair to segregate female managers into two categories. No one assumes that fathers will become less interested in their careers. Others called the two-track notion unrealistic: How could every woman predict which track she would choose? Female managers also could switch tracks. Some researchers believe that income disparities can be explained by employers automatically placing women on the Mommy Track. A U.S. congressional study reported that women in management lost ground compared to men in the same industries during the latter part of the recent economic boom, earning less money compared to men in 2000 than they did in 1995. The report concluded "combining parenthood with advancement into management is particularly difficult for women."

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Source: Polls conducted by Roper Starch Worldwide

5. Balancing Work and Family Responsibilities

No matter the organization, its employees don’t discard their family lives when they enter the office. They still have to coordinate childcare, tend to ill family members and stay home waiting for the repairman, for example. Employees suffer stress as they struggle to balance the remands of the workplace and the needs of their families. The result: absenteeism, reduced job performance and stress-related health problems.

Worldwide women remain disproportionately responsible for childcare and elder care, but more fathers are hesitant to sacrifice their families for their careers. Recent studies indicate that men's and women's attitudes toward balancing work/family obligations are becoming more similar. Some men have chosen the male equivalent of the Mommy Track. In the United States, approximately 207,000 men are primary-care providers for preschoolers and do not work outside the home, according to the U.S Census Bureau.

Demographic and legislative changes are forcing employers to be more flexible if they want to remain effective. In the United States, the federal Family and Medical Leave Act says all employers with 50 or more workers must allow up to 12 unpaid weeks off to care for a newborn or seriously ill family member. In the European Union, work/life concerns influenced the maternity provisions directive and the working hours directive.

Individual employees often are unsuccessful when they try to create work/life solutions without support from their employers. But many “family-friendly” workplaces have discovered that the policies saved money long-term by reducing absenteeism and turnover and increasing productivity, according to research. Successful policies include flexible working hours, job sharing, maternity and paternity leave, and telecommuting.

6. Effective Training and Development

Employers need to accept women as a project/programme purpose imperative. In the future, organizations will be seeking the best managerial candidates from a labor force that is increasingly female. The development of women is a bottom-line issue for organizational success. Organizations must end job segregation, intended or not, and offer women training to ensure the best people can rise and contribute their full potential.

Several studies have advocated that successful development of female managers includes challenging assignments, recognition and support. Traditionally women have received fewer opportunities to share ideas, hear feedback from supervisors and be recognized for their work, according to research. But placing them in new situations with challenging goals triggers female managers to learn lessons and skills that help them perform better when they reach higher levels of management, according to this framework. Recognition includes acknowledging their individual achievements, providing adequate resources for future achievements, and rewarding their work through promotions, salary increases and awards. The support comes in the form of organizational acceptance such as mentors or professional networks and help balancing their careers with the responsibilities of their personal lives.

7. Some organizations, particularly in Germany, have tried a different concept called “Total E-Quality,” a combination of the Total Quality Management (TQM) concept and equality for women. TQM focused on preventing problems caused by processes and makes every employee responsible for quality. Total E-Quality is based on the idea that women’s aptitudes may differ from men’s. It seeks to identify, promote and optimally use women’s talents.
7. Men’s and Women’s Leadership Styles

Women tend to use a more democratic and interpersonally oriented leadership style than men. In general, women encourage participation, share information, prefer democratic decision-making and tend to the morale of others. They lead through inclusion and influencing others using their charisma, expertise and interpersonal skills. In contrast, men are more likely to adopt an autocratic command-and-control leadership style. They rely on the formal authority of their positions to influence others. However, these differences often disappear when women are in male-dominated jobs.

In general, the similarities between men and women outweigh the differences. The similarities between the genders’ managerial styles reflect the fact that individuals who choose managerial careers have a lot of traits in common. Intelligent, confident, social people are more likely to be perceived as leaders and promoted with organizations.

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Sex Differences in Managerial Styles
Male Managers	Female Managers
Worked at a nonstop pace and took no breaks.	Worked at a steady pace but with small breaks throughout the day.
Described their days as interrupted, discontinuous and fragmented.	Did not view unscheduled tasks and encounters as interruptions.
Lacked time for reflection because they focused on day-to-day requirements.	Focused on the ecology of leadership.
Identified with their jobs.	Saw their identities as multifaceted.
Had difficulty sharing information.	Scheduled time for sharing information.
Source: The Web of Inclusion

Female and male managers are equally effective, despite their differences in style. A large body of research has demonstrated that male and female managers who hold equivalent positions do not differ in personality, leadership style, motivation or effectiveness. Other studies have found no gender differences in the conflict management behaviors displayed or in the outcomes attained by males and females supervisors. Despite occupational gender typing, there also has been only a slight tendency – except in the military -- for men to be rated as more effective leaders, according to a comprehensive review of the research. In general, male and female leaders produce equal results, even if they reach those results using different leadership styles.

Similarly, subordinates choose role models based on their leaders’ performance. A Canadian study found that managers choose role models based primarily on their perceptions of the person’s effectiveness. Gender did not influence whether the subordinates viewed their superiors as role models.

Gender stereotypes do affect people’s perceptions of effectiveness. When women and men have used dominating styles, women sometimes have been rated by their subordinates as being less effective than men, according to research. Likewise, when women and men have used an obliging style, men were rated by their subordinates as being less effective than women are. These findings indicate that both women and men are evaluated less favorably when their behavior is gender incongruent than when it is gender congruent.

The managerial skills required for promotional opportunities and leadership success are often learned through informal networks of peers, which many women lack. However, the following three strategies have helped women gain management positions. Some of them women can undertake alone, others require organizational support.

Networking: Women historically have been excluded from the “old boy” network that provides information, access to powerful executives and support. Members of these networks often suggest one of their own as candidates for open positions. Recently, more women have created professional network for sharing information and strategies. Women also must enter male networks to ensure access to where power traditionally has been held. Therefore, organizations should include women in networking functions.

Mentoring: People who are proteges of influential executives get more promotions and power themselves, according to research. Because many women perceive barriers to securing mentors, some employers offer official mentoring programs where they pair young high-potential managers with older, more senior managers. Mentoring also occurs on an informal basis. Women particularly benefit from official mentoring because it increases their visibility and provides access to key executives.

Career Tracking: Some organizations identify high-potential women, provide them challenging and high-profile assignments, and offer official training or mentoring. Essentially these women are placed on tracks designed to lead them to senior-level management positions. Employers who use this strategy monitor the women’s progress and hold managers accountable for implementing the career tracking.

Women no longer will accept biased treatment, as discovered by employers who have been sued for inequalities. In the United Kingdom, more than 130,000 claims of discrimination were filed in 2000 – three times the number filed in 1990. Simultaneously, a plethora of new international laws enacted during the 1990s outlawed sexual harassment. Organizational commitment to policies that combat sexual harassment and promote workplace equality is essential as more women move into the historically male domain of management, where women may encounter resentment from men. Nondiscrimination policies illustrate the organization’s dedication to equal opportunity. Organizations also need to meet women's desire for flexibility.

Senior management must recognize the value of “female” leadership styles. The leadership skills of the future blend “masculine” and “feminine” skills. Flexibility and teamwork – traits perceived as feminine -- increasingly are important in the global economy. Democratic managers who encouraged participation on part of their subordinates were much more favorably perceived than autocratic, directive managers, according to research. At the same time, strategic planning – a skill perceived as masculine – remains important. To succeed, organizations need to create cultures where masculine and feminine styles are valued, co-exist and act as complementary styles.

Men must accept and adjust to working for women. The natural consequence of more women being in management is that fewer men will be in management. Male managers’ responses to women entering their ranks have ranged from welcoming to antagonistic. Research has found that men’s common pitfalls include assuming the role of problem-solver, responding defensively, not listening to others, acting condescendingly, and not sharing information. Men need to recognize women as legitimate equals, determine goals together, reach consensus, exchange information and use facilitators in meetings.

1.) Women held __ of the highest management jobs of Fortune 500 organizations in the United States.

2.) The “glass ceiling” is a term that describes the _____________ created by organizational and attitudinal prejudices that block women from senior-management positions.

4.) The “career-primary” woman is as __________, driven and willing to sacrifice her family for her career as the most driven man.

5.) Recent studies indicate that men and women's attitudes toward balancing work/family obligations are becoming ___________.

6.) Successful development of female managers includes all of the following EXCEPT:

8.) Women particularly benefit from official mentoring because it increases their ______ and provides access to key executives.

(#3) Matching the Columns. Match the correct definition with the word or phrase.

� Female managers represent only a small fraction of senior management today, but they will play an increasingly important role in the future because of demographic changes worldwide.

3.) Today female managers in Western countries perceive women as holding some traits necessary for success in project/programme purpose and men as holding others.

4.) A U.S. congressional study reported that women in management gained ground compared to men in the same industries during the latter part of the recent economic boom.

5.) Worldwide women remain disproportionately responsible for childcare and elder care.

6.). Total E-Quality is based on the idea that women’s aptitudes are identical to men’s.

7.) In general, female managers encourage participation, share information, and prefer democratic decision-making.

8.) People who are proteges of influential executives get more promotions and power themselves.

9.) In general, the similarities between men’s and women’s leadership styles do not outweigh the differences.

10.) When working with female managers, men’s common pitfalls include acting defensively and condescendingly.

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Hugenberg, Lawrence W. ; LaCivita, R.M.; and Lubanovic, A.M. “International project/programme purpose and Training: Preparing for the Global Economy,” The Journal of project/programme purpose Communications 33, 205-222. � 1996.

Javidan, Mansour; Bemmels, Brian; Devine, Kay Stratton; Dastmalchian, Ali “Superior and subordinate gender and the acceptance of superiors as role models.” Human Relations v48, �1995

Lewis, Diane E. “Amid Boom, Widening Gender Wage Gap Seen,” The Boston Globe, Jan. 27, 2002: E1.

Luthar, Harsh K. “Gender differences in evaluation of performance and leadership ability: autocratic vs. democratic managers.” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, v35, n5-6 �1996.

Wirth, Linda. Breaking through the Glass Ceiling. (ISBN 92-2-110845-7) �2001

Attitudes: Evaluative statements or judgement about objects, people or events.

Family-friendly workplace: organizations that offer an umbrella of work/family programs such as on-site day care, flexible hours, compressed workweeks, job sharing and telecommuting.

Flextime work scheduling: Method in which management gives workers limited discretion in arranging their working hours.

Leadership: The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

Leading: A function that includes motivating subordinates, selecting the most effective communication channels and resolving conflicts.

Mentor: A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less experience employee.

Mommy Track: Lower-paying positions for women as a trade-off for them having more flexible schedules to balance their jobs and their families.

Organizational culture: A common perception held by the organization’s members.

Sexual harassment: Unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.

Stereotypes: An oversimplified and often prejudiced belief about members of a group.

Workforce diversity: The increasing heterogeneity of organizations with the inclusion of different groups.

1.) Do men and women have different communication styles in addition to different management styles?

Men and women do have different conversation styles, according to studies. One researcher has characterized female talk as “rapport talk,” because it emphasizes relationships, and male talk as “report talk” because it emphasizes facts. Women expect everyone to have a turn providing comments, but men compete to be the winner of everyone else’s attention. Men also are more likely to talk more in meetings.

Employees, regardless of gender, benefit from mentoring programs. Women being mentored by men in senior management positions are particularly helpful in eliminating sexual prejudices and stereotypes. Overall, successful factors include:

3.) How can organizations eliminate biases when recruiting for open positions?

Organizations can recruit from a more diverse group of universities and colleges to attract more heterogeneous pool of applicants. Employers also can make recruit procedures clearer, more transparent and better structured helps ensure fairness. Interviewers also can ask applicants specific questions and then rank them based on their replies, qualifications and experience to reduce the effect of subjective impressions.

a) Family-friendly workplace	1) Lower-paying positions as a trade-off for having more flexible schedules.
b) Mentor	2) A function that includes motivating subordinates and resolving conflicts.
c) Leading	3) organizations that offer an umbrella of work/family programs such as on-site day care, flexible hours and telecommuting.
d) Sexual harassment	4) A common perception held by the organization’s members.
e) Mommy Track	5 A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less experience employee.
f) Organizational culture	6) Unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature.