Cultural Orientations and Business Behavior

This lesson considers how individualism is viewed by different cultures and how individualism impacts project/programme purpose behavior.

These criteria can be linked and compared to a continuum of key orientations corresponding to the cultural perspectives of different countries: (Include table)

In order to link cultural orientations to international project/programme purpose, it is useful to check and contrast the patterns of project/programme purpose behavior between different countries or regions against the following set of questions:

� What are the differences in the degree to which work can bypass levels of authority?

� What is considered an acceptable amount of time for breaking even or for producing results?

� Is project/programme purpose conducting by developing relationships or by setting and completing tasks?

� If new offices or other facilities are discussed, what are the conceptions about the way that such space should be organized?

3. Degrees of individualism.

The first variable in cultural orientations for defining project/programme purpose behavior is the degree to which a culture is individualistic or collectivistic.

The dimension of individualism-collectivism is thought to account for many cultural differences in behavior. Triandis (1994) calls individualism-collectivism "the most important world view that differentiates cultures."

The individualism variable shows the extent to which countries elevate the importance of the role of the individual over the role of the group.

4. Defining “I” and the self.

One clear distinction that emerges among various cultures is the extent to which the self is defined in relation to others. In other words, is the self defined as an autonomous and unique individual, or is it seen as inextricably and fundamentally embedded within a larger social network?

Some individuals tend to define themselves based on their personal accomplishments, achievements, education and interests.

Others prefer to define themselves based on the status in the community, family background, connections, friendship circle, age and gender.

This distinction has been referred to as “Individualism versus collectivism” (Triandis, 1989) or as “Independence versus interdependence” (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).

Markus, a renowned behavioral scientist, maintains that people live by the "meanings and practices of multiple sets of cultural contexts." Human beings develop vastly different self-conceptions and patterns of thought and behavior that are instrumental in maintaining and reproducing the cultural system in which those systems thrive.

Differences manifest themselves in the most basic of ways, as Markus found out by asking a sampling of American, Japanese and Chinese college students to examine a selection of rectangles and triangles. The shapes were arranged in an orderly fashion, but one triangle or rectangle was either slightly different in size or placed slightly farther away from the others. The European and American students preferred the shapes that stand out or that are distinctive, while the Asian students preferred the ones that are in the middle, surrounded by others.

Whether the self is construed as socially embedded or as an autonomous entity reflects the goals of the individuals within the culture, according to Markus and fellow researcher Kitayama. The individuals’ goals are either to stay connected with one another or to secure independent success and distinction.

Cross-cultural analyses suggest that these goals are differentially elaborated and encouraged through cultural practices, societal norms and social institutions. However, to the extent that humans universally share the goals of both autonomy and belonging, all individuals may be expected to flexibly define themselves as relatively more independent or interdependent depending on current motives or the current situation.

Persons with an independent construct of self strive to assert their individuality and uniqueness and to stress their separateness from the social world. Independence is the dominant value in North America and, to a lesser degree, in European cultures.

In contrast, those with an interdependent construct of self are characterized by an emphasis on the interrelatedness of the individual to others and to the environment. Alone, the self has no meaning. Interdependence is the dominant value in many Asian cultures.

In summary, people in cultures where independence is a valued trait may be more likely to use self-enhancing biases to distinguish themselves from others. People from cultures representative of an interdependent construct of self do not self-enhance to the same extent as people from cultures characteristic of an independent self. This cultural difference suggests that the "normality" of self-enhancing biases might be specific to Western cultures.

Individualism is a social pattern that places the highest value on the interests of the individual and that considers the individual as the primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value.

Individualistic cultures value the person over the group. People in individualistic cultures place a high value on independence. The obligations among people are few, and social bonds are relatively loose and flexible. When personal goals conflict with group goals, individualists tend to give priority to their personal goals. Individualists see people dealing primarily with reality; other people are just one aspect of reality. Individualistic culture does not deny that societies exist or that people benefit from living in them, but it sees society as a collection of individuals, not something over and above them.

While not denying that one person can build on the achievements of others, individualism considers achievement as that which goes beyond what has already been done. Achievement is something new that is created by the individual. Individualists are proud of their accomplishments and expect others to feel proud of their own achievements.

When establishing the level of their commitment to others, individualists balance the advantages and disadvantages of cultivating and maintaining a relationship. The level of commitment generally corresponds to the level of perceived benefit. Personal preferences, needs, rights and goals are individualists' primary concerns.

Collectivism is a social pattern that places the highest value on the interests of the group. The primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value is the group: the nation, the community, the proletariat, the ethnic group, and one’s faith.

Collectivists emphasize that people interact primarily with other people. Reality is dealt with through the mediator of the group. The group, not the individual, is what directly confronts reality. In this view, an individual is a temporary spokesman for the underlying, collective process of progress. This view does not deny the reality of the individual, but ultimately that identity is determined by the groups with which the individual interacts.

Collectivists view themselves as interdependent and closely linked to one or more groups. They often are willing to maintain a commitment to a group even when their obligations to the group are personally disadvantageous. Norms, obligations and duties to groups are collectivists' primary concerns, and they tend to place a high value on group harmony and solidarity. Respectfulness and cooperation are common collectivist traits. When personal goals conflict with group norms, collectivists tend to conform to group norms. Collectivists tend to emphasize goals that are in-group rather than individual, and they make clear distinctions in the treatment of in-group and out-group members. The collectivists' emphasis on harmony within the in-group is also associated with saving the face of the other, avoiding conflict and smoothing interactions.

� Putting co-workers in competition with one another to ascertain which one is best qualified for a promotion could be detrimental to morale.

� Achievement is a product of society. Publicly singling out and praising an individual’s achievements in the midst of his or her work team might cause embarrassment. Motivation is via affiliation and security.

� Individual interests are subordinate to group interests. Identity is based on the social network to which the person belongs.

� Social control is based upon the fear of losing face and the possibility of shame.

� Laws and rights differ by group, and political power is wielded by interest groups.

� Cohesive groups protect their members in exchange for loyalty and obedience. The in-group expects loyalty in exchange for security and protection.

� Group decisions take precedence over individual decisions. Not showing respect or patience for the need to consult with others before making a decision – even if that process is fairly lengthy – is considered offensive and pushy.

The differing conceptions of the self in collectivistic and individualistic cultures are often reflected in project/programme purpose behavior and organizational structure. Compare the following characteristics and consider the implications for organizations and their management teams:

In many Western cultures, the dominant norms and values reinforce both the idea of the self as independent and autonomous and the assessment of the self in terms of individual achievements and characteristics. This cultural framework is thought to produce an independent, individualistic self.

By contrast, in many Eastern and some Western cultures, the dominant cultural milieu supports conceptions of the self as intertwined and interdependent with others. In these cultures, the self is evaluated in terms of one's fit in the social setting and one's fulfillment of social and cultural obligations. Such a cultural framework is said to produce an interdependent, collectivistic self.

The dominant norms and values in the United States and in Japan are profoundly different as regards several key cultural dimensions, including the relative importance of family, interrelatedness with others, hedonistic self-reliance and separation from in-groups. Mainstream American culture is overwhelmingly independence-oriented, emphasizing a notion of the self as unique and separate. Americans consider themselves individualistic and egalitarian. They are motivated by a desire “to stand out from the crowd.”

Japanese culture, on the other hand, is collectivist and hierarchical. The Japanese promote the idea that individuals need to work on self-improvement continuously in order to measure up to a commonly acknowledged standard.

Advertisements often mirror the groups they target, and the behavioral scientist Markus turned to a variety of ads to demonstrate how collectivism manifests itself in the way the Japanese see themselves. In a Japanese ad for stomach medicine, for example, three smiling men dance on a sake bottle. They wear satin banners across their torsos that proclaim they are members in a club for the medicine. They are not charting their own courses; they look very happy being together. Overwhelmingly, Japanese ads emphasize interdependence, sympathy, belonging and staying “with it.” American ads, on the contrary, emphasize freedom, uniqueness and breaking the rules.

Two individualistic, self-interested negotiators may be able to stimulate each other to achieve high goals. But what happens to one individualistic and one collectivistic? In an intercultural negotiation between American and Japanese parties, the differences in the two cultures’ focus on self-interest appear to affect the level of joint gains. Since American negotiators are more focused on self-interest than their Japanese counterparts, the patterns of negotiation behavior are fundamentally different. The Americans are stimulated by concern for self and the Japanese by concern for social power.

Executives must deal with a wide range of emotions that the processes of negotiation and management generate. It is culture, however, that teaches people what emotions are and when and where certain emotions should be expressed. When a person finds himself outside of his own culture, therefore, emotional expression and experience can be complicated substantially.

Emotions that maintain or af organization a particular society's construction of the self are more likely to be expressed than those that do not. Collectivistic cultures such as Japan and China foster the expression of interdependent emotions. Individualistic cultures such as the United States support independent self conceptions and encourage the expression of independent emotions.

For this reason, many Japanese and Chinese tend to express relationship-maintaining emotions such as devotion to others and compassion, whereas Americans feel more comfortable expressing independence-enhancing emotions such as self-sufficiency and pride in oneself.

Americans express positive interdependent emotions to family members but are not comfortable expressing interdependent emotions to strangers, with whom most Americans would prefer to maintain emotional independence.

Because the distinction between the treatment of in-group and out-group members is greater in collectivistic than in individualistic cultures, collectivistic cultures emphasize group harmony more than individualistic cultures. This respect for group harmony means that people from collectivist cultures feel uncomfortable expressing negative emotions.

1. According to Markus and Kitayama, the goals of the individuals within a culture are differentially elaborated and encouraged through cultural practices, societal norms and social institutions.

2. In individualistic cultures, identity is based on the social network to which the person belongs.

4. Patience is a virtue when dealing with collectivist cultures because decision-making tends to be a group process.

5. Conflict is seen inevitable and positive in collectivist cultures because it ultimately strengthens harmony.

6. The relationship-maintaining emotions which many collectivist cultures value include self-sufficiency and pride in oneself.

3. Employer-employee relationships in individualistic cultures tend to be based on:

a. Independence

1. Breaking the rules

b. Interdependence

2. Autonomous

c. Individualistic

3. Pride in oneself

d. Collectivistic

4. Socially embedded

e. Independence-enhancing

5. Harmony

f. Relationship-maintaining

6. Mutual encouragement

This lesson first summarizes the six variables against which culture is analyzed in the rest of the course – individualism, human relations, communication, time, space and action – and then introduces the learner to the types of questions that are useful for identifying these criteria in a foreign culture. The rest of the lesson focuses on the first variable, individualism, and considers how individuals from different cultures see themselves and to what degree they value individualism or collectivism.

1. All human beings share the goals of both autonomy and belonging, only to differing degrees.

2. People from individualistic cultures tend to use self-enhancing biases to distinguish themselves from others.

3. Individualistic cultures deny that any sort of society exists and refuse to believe that people benefit from living in them.

4. Individualists tend to make an extra effort to demonstrate their self-importance by focusing on securing relationships with superiors and inferiors, ignoring their peers.

5. project/programme purposepeople from individualistic cultures tend to consider achievement as something new that is created by the individual and which he or she should feel proud.

6. Collectivistic societies do not deny the reality of the individual, but believe that his or her identity is determined by the groups with which the individual interacts

7. Since collectivistic cultures encourage teamwork, each individual member feels sufficiently protected to take professional risks and to speak his or her mind without caution.

8. The only way to reach a deal when negotiating with persons from collectivistic cultures is to pressure them to speed up the process..

9. Executives from collectivistic cultures are more willing to give priority to organization goals over personal goals. .

10. Emotions that maintain or af organization a particular society's construction of the self are less likely to be expressed than those that do not.

1. Markus, H. & Kitayama, S. “Cultural Variation in the Self-Concept”. In G.R. Goethals and J. Strauss (Eds.). “Multidisciplinary Perspectives on the Self” (pp. 18- 48). New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991.

2. Schwarz, S. H. “Beyond Individualism/Collectivism: New Cultural Dimensions of Values”. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, 1994.

3. Triandis, H.C. “Collectivism vs. Individualism: A Reconceptualization of Basic Concepts in Cross-Cultural Psychology”, 1988.

4. Triandis, H. C. “Cross-Cultural Studies of Individualism-Collectivism”. In J. Berman (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1989. Vol. 37, pp 41 - 133. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.

5. Triandis H. C. “Individualism and Collectivism”. Boulder: Westview, 1995.

Glossary

1. Individualistic: the culture stresses the interests of the individual, self-reliance and achievement.

3. Independence-enhancing: the emotional framework of individualists who prefer to keep their distance while demonstrating their dynamism and self-sufficiency.

4. Relationship-maintaining: the emotional framework of collectivists who seek to maintain group harmony by showing compassion, patience and devotion to others.

Learning Objectives

� To review the six variables for analyzing culture and to learn the types of questions that are useful for identifying these criteria in foreign cultures.

� To study the differences between individualistic and collectivistic cultures and to consider the implications for organizations and their management teams.

Q&A

Question 1: Can persons from individualistic and collectivistic cultures work together efficiently on the same team?

Answer 1: The success of cross-cultural teamwork depends on the awareness of each team member of the project/programme purpose goals to be achieved and the willingness of each participants to adapt his or her own vision to the perceptions of the rest of the group. Individualists may tend to think of the overall project/programme purpose objectives as personal goals to be achieved with or without the rest of the group; such individualists need to be convinced by the team leader that personal success will necessarily depend on the input from the rest of the team. Team members who value collectivism may consider the individualists aggressive and tiresome. However, since harmony and group success is more important, the collectivists should do their best to filter out any perceived offensive egoism from the other members and focus on orchestrating the ensemble of talents in order to achieve success.

Question 2: How can project/programme purposees target their marketing messages in individualistic societies if each person is so different?

Answer 2: Individualistic culture does not deny that societies exist or that people benefit from living in them, but it sees society as a collection of individuals, not something over and above them. Marketing messages, therefore, should emphasize freedom, uniqueness and breaking the rules. It should, however, be noted that the sub-groups based on age and socio-economic level can be open to more collectivistic values such as belonging.

Question 3: Individualists tend to be direct and boisterous – Why aren’t they more willing to integrate a personal aspect to the project/programme purpose relationship?

Answer 3: The exuberance with which individualists like to stand out from the crowd and exhibit the power of their accomplishments and personality does not mean that they are willing to express interdependent emotions to strangers. Perhaps their loud behavior, often misconstrued by others as a sign of familiarity, is in fact a means of keeping emotional distance from others. Emotional independence is especially important in the case of project/programme purpose interaction; individualists would not want interdependence to obscure good judgment for maximizing personal project/programme purpose goals.